Implicit Social Cognition: Attitudes, Self-Esteem, and Stereotypes
Psychological Review, 1995 · paper · Psychology
Reviews evidence that attitudes, self-esteem and stereotypes often operate implicitly, influencing judgment without the person's awareness. It argues for indirect measures and links implicit stereotyping to discrimination by people who explicitly disavow prejudice.
Checked: PDF from faculty.washington.edu, fetched 5 Oct 2026. Page numbers are those of that PDF.
12 findings
Reference or label "Single words have been shown to result in effortless activation of attitudes (discussed in the next paragraph)": the next paragraph ("Priming and context effects") does not discuss attitude activation; that discussion is in the earlier "Attitudes" paragraph on PDF p.2.
- p. 3 Paragraph 'Effortless or automatic social cognition'
effortless activation of attitudes (discussed in the next paragraph)
- p. 2 Introduction, 'Attitudes' paragraph
Recent work has established that attitudes are activated outside of conscious attention
Judge's note: Read the full page 3 image. The paragraphs that follow are 'Priming and context effects' and 'Introspective access'; neither covers automatic activation of attitudes. The 'Attitudes' paragraph on PDF p.2 (Bargh et al., 1992; Fazio et al., 1986; Greenwald, Klinger, & Liu, 1989) does. The pointer should refer backward, not forward.
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Reference or label "standard self-esteem inventories (e.g., Helmreich, Stapp, & Ervin, 1974; Rosenberg, 1965)": the only 1965 Rosenberg entry in the reference list is "Rosenberg, M. J. (1965). When dissonance fails: On eliminating evaluation apprehension from attitude measurement."
- p. 11 Alternative Interpretations of Implicit Self-Esteem Effects, 3rd paragraph
standard self-esteem inventories (e.g., Helmreich, Stapp, & Ervin, 1974; Rosenberg, 1965)
- p. 22 Reference list
Rosenberg, M. J. (1965). When dissonance fails: On eliminating evaluation apprehension from attitude measurement.
Only the authors can say what is right here.
Judge's note: Both crops are as quoted. A search of the text finds three Rosenberg citations (1965, 1969, 1979) and three entries: M. J. Rosenberg (1965), M. J. Rosenberg (1969) and M. Rosenberg (1979). The 1965 entry's title concerns evaluation apprehension in attitude measurement, not a self-esteem inventory, and it is cited nowhere else in the text. The intended source appears to be missing from the list; identifying it (a 1965 self-esteem scale by a different Rosenberg) rests on outside knowledge, so the authors should confirm.
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Reference or label Quotation attributed to "(Brigham, 1971, p. 13)", but the reference list gives "Brigham, J. C. (1971). Ethnic stereotypes. Psychological Bulletin, 76, 15-33."
- p. 12 List of stereotype definitions
(Brigham, 1971, p. 13)
- p. 18 Reference list
Brigham, J. C. (1971). Ethnic stereotypes. Psychological Bulletin, 76, 15-33.
- p. 18 References, Brigham entry
Psychological Bulletin, 76, 15-33.
- p. 18 Reference list
Psychological Bulletin, 76, 15-33
Only the authors can say what is right here.
Judge's note: Both page images show the numbers as quoted. Page 13 is before the article's first listed page (15), so either the quotation page or the page range is wrong. The files cannot say which.
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Reference or label Quotation attributed to "(Snyder, 1981, p. 415)", but the reference list gives the chapter as "(pp. 183-212)" of Hamilton (Ed.), Cognitive processes in stereotyping and intergroup behavior.
- p. 12 List of stereotype definitions
(Snyder, 1981, p. 415)
- p. 23 Reference list
tergroup behavior (pp. 183-212). Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.
- p. 23 Reference list
cognitive processes in stereotyping and in-tergroup behavior (pp. 183-212)
- p. 23 Reference list
(pp. 183-212)
Only the authors can say what is right here.
Judge's note: Both page images show the numbers as quoted. Page 415 is far outside 183-212, and there is only one Snyder (1981) entry (the other Snyder in the list is R. C. Snyder, a co-author of Crosby et al.). The files cannot say which number is wrong, or whether a different Snyder work was meant.
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Reference or label Reference entry reads "Broverman, I., Vogel, S. R., Broverman, D. M., Clarkson, F., & Rosenkrantz, P. S. (1972). Sex role stereotypes: A current appraisal. Journal of Sex Roles, 28, 59-78."; the journal title appears to be wrong.
- p. 18 Reference list
Sex role stereotypes: A current appraisal. Journal of Sex Roles, 28, 59-78.
- p. 18 Reference list
Sex Roles, 2, 123-148.
- p. 18 Reference list
Journal of Sex Roles, 28, 59-78.
- p. 18 Reference list, Broverman et al. (1972)
Journal of Sex Roles, 28, 59-78
Only the authors can say what is right here.
Judge's note: Rests on outside knowledge: that this article appeared in the Journal of Social Issues, vol. 28, and that no 'Journal of Sex Roles' exists. The page image prints 'Journal of Sex Roles, 28, 59-78'. Within the file, the same list cites Sex Roles vol. 2 for 1976 (Bar-Tal & Saxe) and vol. 9 for 1983 (Porter et al.), so vol. 28 in 1972 cannot be that journal; the title looks contaminated by the article title. The correct journal cannot be verified from the files.
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Reference or label Edwards (1990) reference prints "Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 59, 212-216."; the first page may be wrong (external record gives 202).
- p. 19
Edwards, K. (1990). The interplay of affect and cognition in attitude formation and change
Only the authors can say what is right here.
Judge's note: Rests on outside knowledge: the reviewer's Crossref record (doi:10.1037/0022-3514.59.2.202) giving first page 202. The crop confirms the page prints '59, 212-216', so it is not an OCR artefact. Nothing in the files verifies the true page range.
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Reference or label Schacter (1987) reference prints "Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition, 12, 432-444.", while the same journal is vol. 11 for 1985 (Graf & Schacter), so vol. 12 does not match the year 1987.
- p. 23 Reference list
nal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition, 12, 432-444.
- p. 20 Reference list
tal Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition, 11, 501-518.
- p. 23 Reference list, Schacter (1987)
12, 432-444
- p. 23 References
12, 432-444.
Only the authors can say what is right here.
Judge's note: Rests on outside knowledge: that this journal publishes one volume a year, and the reviewers' claim that the article is vol. 13, pp. 501-518. The crops confirm the page prints '12, 432-444' for Schacter (1987) and '11, 501-518' for Graf & Schacter (1985). On an annual pattern, 1987 would be vol. 13, so the volume/year pairing is inconsistent within the list. Whether the volume, pages or year is the error cannot be settled from the files.
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Reference or label Howard (1992) reference prints "Journal of Consumer Psychology, 3, 197-224."; the volume may be wrong (external record gives volume 1).
- p. 21
Howard, D. J. (1992). Gift-wrapping effects on product attitudes: A mood-biasing explanati
Only the authors can say what is right here.
Judge's note: Rests on outside knowledge: the reviewer's Crossref record (doi:10.1016/s1057-7408(08)80036-8) giving volume 1. The crop confirms the page prints volume '3' in italics. The '3' may be an issue number printed in place of the volume, but nothing in the files settles it.
Second check: another model agreed, code check
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Reference or label Tulving & Schacter (1990) reference prints "Science, 267, 301-306.", a volume number inconsistent with the year given the list's other Science entries (vol. 144 for 1964, vol. 237 for 1987).
- p. 24 Reference list
Science, 267, 301-306.
- p. 21 Reference list
Science, 237, 1445-
- p. 24 Reference list, Tulving & Schacter (1990)
Science, 267, 301-306
Only the authors can say what is right here.
Judge's note: Rests on outside knowledge: that Science publishes about four volumes a year and that the 1990 article is in vol. 247. The crops confirm the page prints 'Science, 267, 301-306' for 1990 and 'Science, 237, 1445-1452' for Kihlstrom (1987). The list's own entries give about 4 volumes a year (144 in 1964 to 237 in 1987), which puts 1990 near vol. 249 and vol. 267 about 7.5 years after 1987, later than the article's April 1994 acceptance. The exact correct volume cannot be verified from the files.
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Reference or label Mullen, Brown, & Smith (1992) reference prints the journal as "European Journal of Psychology, 22, 103-122."; "Social" appears to be omitted (European Journal of Social Psychology).
- p. 22 Reference list
European Journal of Psychology, 22, 103-122.
- p. 22 Reference list, Mullen et al. (1992)
European Journal of Psychology, 22, 103-122
Judge's note: The crop confirms the page prints 'European Journal of Psychology, 22, 103-122'. The same list gives European Journal of Social Psychology vol. 21 for 1991 (Feys) and vol. 23 for 1993 (Strack et al.), so vol. 22 for 1992 fits that journal. The body text also names the European Journal of Social Psychology. No 'European Journal of Psychology' appears anywhere else in the article.
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Reference or label Wilder & Shapiro (1984) reference prints the journal as "Journal of Social and Personality Psychology, 47, 342-348."; the title words are transposed (Journal of Personality and Social Psychology).
- p. 24 Reference list
Journal of Social and Personality Psychology, 47, 342-348.
- p. 24 Reference list
Journal of Social and Personality Psychology; 47, 342-348.
- p. 24 Reference list, Wilder & Shapiro (1984)
Journal of Social and Personality Psychology, 47, 342-348
Judge's note: The crop shows 'Journal of Social and Personality Psychology, 47, 342-348' in print. The same list has Winter & Uleman (1984) in 'Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 47, 237-252' (seen in the C030-a crop), so the volume and year match that journal. No journal with the transposed title appears elsewhere in the list.
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Reference or label Reference entry reads "Tulving, E., & Schacter, D. (1990). Priming and human memory systems. Science, 267, 301-306."; the volume number 267 appears to be wrong for a 1990 issue of Science (the reviewer cites 247).
- p. 24
Tulving, E., & Schacter, D. (1990). Priming and human memory systems. Science, 267, 301-30
Only the authors can say what is right here.
Judge's note: Rests on outside knowledge: that the Tulving & Schacter (1990) article is in Science volume 247 (the reviewer cites a Crossref record, which is not in the files). The crop and the page 24 image both clearly print "Science, 267, 301-306", so this is not an extraction artefact. The paper's own reference list gives partial internal support: Kihlstrom (1987) is printed as "Science, 237", so a 1990 volume near 247 is plausible and 267 is not. The correct volume cannot be verified from the files, so this goes to the authors as a query.
Second check: another model agreed, code check
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10 minor (typos and the like; most checked by the judge only)
Wording The review that led to Bornstein & D'Agostino (1992) is given as "Bornstein's (1989) meta-analytic review" on PDF p.7 and as "Bornstein (1992) observed that this mere exposure effect was increased by procedures that decreased memorability of prior exposures" on PDF p.15.
- p. 7 Other Implicit Attitude Effects, 'Mere exposure'
pursuing a lead that came from Bornstein's (1989) meta-analytic review
- p. 15 'Recall of implicit cue decreases implicit effect'
Bornstein (1992) observed that this mere exposure effect was increased by procedures that decreased memorability of prior exposures
- p. 7
pursuing a lead that came from Bernstein's (1989) meta-analytic review
Judge's note: The 'Bernstein' spelling is only in the OCR text layer; the p.7 image prints 'Bornstein's (1989)', so that part is an extraction artefact. The year difference is real on the page images. Both Bornstein (1989, meta-analysis) and Bornstein (1992, chapter on subliminal mere exposure) are in the reference list, and the 1992 chapter could make the same observation, so either citation could be legitimate. Kept as a minor consistency point only.
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Wording "As previously mentioned, hit rates (correct identifications of famous names) were greater for male than female names": no earlier passage reports this result.
- p. 13 Stereotypical Gender Bias in Fame Judgments, paragraph beginning 'The main findings are graphed in Figure 2'
As previously mentioned, hit rates (correct identifications of famous names) were greater for male than female names
Only the authors can say what is right here.
Judge's note: Read the full page 13 image and the preceding text. Before this sentence the article reports only the Jacoby et al. (1989) old-versus-new false-alarm effect and the design of the Banaji & Greenwald study. A search for 'hit rate' finds only the definition a few lines earlier and this sentence. The back-reference has no antecedent for the gender results. Figure 2 itself is consistent with the claim (hits 74.0 vs 65.7 for old names, 68.3 vs 60.8 for new).
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Typo Allport (1935) is quoted as "most distinctive and indispensable concept" (p. 798) on PDF p.1 and as "most indispensable concept" on PDF p.4, the second with words dropped inside the quotation marks and no ellipsis.
- p. 1 Introduction, 1st paragraph
"most distinctive and indispens-able concept" (p. 798)
- p. 4 Implicit Attitudes, 2nd paragraph
cial psychology's "most indispensable concept."
Judge's note: Both crops show the wording as quoted. The second is evidently a shortened repeat of the first; meaning is unchanged, so this is a cosmetic consistency point.
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Typo Duplicated word: "mislabels it in a way that that influences the judgment of either that stimulus".
- p. 3 Paragraph 'Effortless or automatic social cognition'
a way that that influences the judgment of either that stimulus
- p. 3
mislabels it in a way that that influences the judgment
Judge's note: The crop and full page image show 'that that' on a single printed line, so it is not a line-break or extraction artefact.
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Typo Subject-verb disagreement: "Research on latency decomposition, projective tests, and miscellaneous other procedures indicate that indirect measurement ... is possible."
- p. 17 Other Indirect Measures, final paragraph
Research on latency decomposition, projective tests, and miscellaneous other procedures indicate
Judge's note: The crop shows the sentence as quoted. The subject is the singular 'Research', so the verb should be 'indicates'. Meaning is unaffected.
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Typo Aronson (1968) reference prints the editor's name as "Rosenberg, & P. H. Tannenbuam (Eds.)"; the same surname is spelled "Tannenbaum" in the Osgood, Suci, & Tannenbaum (1957) entry and in-text citation.
- p. 18 Reference list, Aronson (1968)
Rosenberg, & P. H. Tannenbuam (Eds.)
- p. 18 Reference list, Aronson (1968)
P. H. Tannenbuam
Judge's note: The crop shows 'Tannenbuam' in print, so it is not an OCR artefact. The text layer has 'Tannenbaum' in the Osgood et al. (1957) reference and the in-text citation. A transposed-letter misspelling with an evident fix.
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Typo Reference list prints "Arkes, J. R., Boehm, L. E., & Xu, G. (1991). Determinants of judged validity"; the first author's initials may be wrong (reviewer says H. R.).
- p. 18 References
Arkes, J. R., Boehm, L. E., & Xu, G. (1991).
Only the authors can say what is right here.
Judge's note: Rests on outside knowledge: that the first author of 'Determinants of judged validity' is Hal R. Arkes (initials H. R.). The crop confirms the page prints 'Arkes, J. R.'. The in-text citation gives the surname only, so nothing in the files settles the initials.
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Typo Donders (1969) reference prints "Onderzoekingen gedaan in het Psyiologish Laboratorium der Utrechtsche Hoogeschool"; "Psyiologish" appears to be a misspelling (reviewer says Physiologisch).
- p. 19 Reference list, Donders (1969)
gedaan in het Psyiologish Laboratorium der Utrechtsche
Only the authors can say what is right here.
Judge's note: Rests on outside knowledge: the correct Dutch spelling 'Physiologisch Laboratorium'. The page image (the Donders entry is visible in the C020 crop and on the full page) prints 'het Psyiologish Laboratorium', so the misspelling is in print and not OCR. The correct form cannot be checked from the files.
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Typo Niedenthal (1992) reference prints "In R. F. Bornstein & T. S. Pittman (Ed.), Perception without awareness" with singular "(Ed.)" for two editors.
- p. 22 Reference list, Niedenthal (1992)
In R. F. Bornstein & T. S. Pitt-man (Ed.), Perception without awareness
Judge's note: The crop shows '(Ed.)' in print after two editor names. The same volume carries '(Eds.)' in the Bornstein (1992) and Bornstein & Pittman (1992) entries, as seen in the page 18 crop.
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Typo Wilson, Dunn, Kraft, & Lisle (1989) reference prints "Advances in experimental social psychology (Vol. 22, 287-343)" with no "pp." before the page range, unlike every other chapter entry in the list.
- p. 24 Reference list, Wilson et al. (1989)
(Vol. 22, 287-343)
Judge's note: Read the entry on the page 24 image: it prints "(Vol. 22, 287-343)". A search of the text layer shows all other volume-plus-pages chapter entries use the form "(Vol. N, pp. x-y)", e.g. "(Vol. 2, pp. 92-157)", "(Vol. 2, pp. 283-301)", "(Vol. 23, pp. 75-". This is a cosmetic omission; the meaning is unaffected.
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