DeepWalk: Online Learning of Social Representations
Proceedings of the 20th ACM SIGKDD international conference on Knowledge discovery and data mining, 2014 · paper · AI and machine learning
Introduces DeepWalk, which learns vector representations of network nodes by treating short random walks like sentences in language models. On social network classification tasks it outperforms baselines, giving up to 10% higher F1 when labeled data is sparse.
Checked: PDF from arxiv.org, fetched 4 Oct 2026. Page numbers are those of that PDF.
8 findings
Reference or label Section 6.1.3: "When 1% of the labeled nodes are used for test, the Micro-F1 improves by 14%" should read "used for training"; the 14% is from the 1% labelled column of Table 4, where 1% is the training ratio.
- p. 6 Section 6.1.3, second paragraph
When 1% of the la-beled nodes are used for test, the Micro-F1 improves by 14%.
- p. 6 Section 6.1
sample a portion (TR) of the labeled nodes, and use them as training data. The rest of the nodes are used as test.
- p. 2 Introduction, contributions, second bullet
getting improvements 5%-10% of Micro F1, on the sparsest problems we consider
- p. 1 Abstract
F1 scores up to 10% higher than competing methods when labeled data is sparse
Judge's note: This cluster is judged on the "used for test" wording only; the 10% versus 14% point that reviewers also raised here is judged in C001. Section 6.1 on page 6 defines TR as the portion of labelled nodes used as training data, with the rest used as test, and the paragraph says TR is varied from 1% to 10%. The 14% matches the 1% column of Table 4 (37.95 against EdgeCluster 23.90), and the next sentence says the lead narrows "as the training data increases". Table 4 has no 99%-training condition, so there is no reading in which 1% is the test share.
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Reference or label Section 5.1: "An overview of the graphs we consider in our experiments is given in Figure 1." The overview is Table 1 ("Graphs used in our experiments"); Figure 1 is the Karate graph and its embedding.
- p. 6 Section 5.1, sentence below Table 1
An overview of the graphs we consider in our experiments is given in Figure 1.
- p. 6 Table 1 caption
Table 1: Graphs used in our experiments.
- p. 6 5.1 Datasets
is given in Figure 1.
Judge's note: Checked the page 6 image: Table 1 with |V|, |E|, |Y| and labels for BlogCatalog, Flickr and YouTube sits directly above the sentence. Figure 1 on page 1 shows the Karate graph and its 2-D representation and none of the experimental graphs.
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Reference or label Figure 5: both panel groups carry the sub-caption label "(a)": "(a) Stability over dimensions, d" and "(a) Stability over number of walks, γ"; the second group, whose panels are (b1)-(b4), should be labelled "(b)".
- p. 8 Figure 5, right-hand group caption
(a) Stability over number of walks, γ
- p. 8 Figure 5, left-hand group caption
(a) Stability over dimensions, d
- p. 8 6.2.2
Figure 5a shows the effects of increasing γ
- p. 8 6.2.2
Figure 5a shows the effects of increasing
Judge's note: Page 8 image: the left group (a1-a4) is captioned "(a) Stability over dimensions, d" and the right group (b1-b4) is captioned "(a) Stability over number of walks, γ". The text cites the right-hand panels as Fig. 5b1-5b4. Several notes in this cluster also raise the text pointer "Figure 5a" in Section 6.2.2; that is judged separately as C021. This cluster is the caption label.
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Reference or label Section 6.2.2: "Figure 5a shows the effects of increasing γ, the number of random walks that we start from each vertex" should point to Figure 5b (panels b1-b4); Figure 5a is the dimensionality group, cited as such in Section 6.2.1.
- p. 8 Section 6.2.2, first sentence
Figure 5a shows the effects of increasing γ, the number of random walks that we start from each vertex.
- p. 8 Section 6.2.1, first sentence
Figure 5a shows the effects of increasing the number of latent dimensions available to our model.
- p. 8 Section 6.2.2, first sentence
Figure 5a shows the effects of increasing γ, the number of random walks that we start from each vertex
- p. 8 Section 6.2.2, first sentence
Figure 5a shows the effects of increasing γ
Judge's note: Page 8 image. Panels a1-a4 have d on the x-axis; panels b1-b4 have γ on the x-axis, and the next sentence of 6.2.2 cites Fig. 5b1-5b4. Section 6.2.1 opens with "Figure 5a shows the effects of increasing the number of latent dimensions". The pointer probably follows the mislabelled sub-caption (C020), but it is a separate defect in the body text, so it is kept as its own finding.
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Reference or label Section 6.2.1: "Figures 5a2 and 5a3 examine the effects of varying the dimensionality and number of walks per vertex" should cite Figures 5a2 and 5a4; panel a3 has γ fixed at 30 and varies the training ratio.
- p. 8 Section 6.2.1, third paragraph
Figures 5a2 and 5a3 examine the effects of varying the dimensionality and number of walks per vertex.
- p. 8 Figure 5 panel captions
(a3) BlogCatalog, γ = 30
- p. 8 Figure 5 panel captions
(a4) BlogCatalog, TR = 0.5
- p. 8 Section 6.2.1, third paragraph
Figures 5a2 and 5a3 examine the effects of varying the dimensionality and number of walks per vertex
Judge's note: Page 8 image. Panel captions: (a1) Flickr, γ = 30; (a2) Flickr, T_R = 0.05; (a3) BlogCatalog, γ = 30; (a4) BlogCatalog, T_R = 0.5. The legends of a2 and a4 are γ values (1, 3, 10, 30, 50, 90); the legends of a1 and a3 are training ratios. The preceding paragraph already cites "Figures 5a1 and 5a3" for dimensionality and training rate, and the paragraph in question speaks of "both graphs", which needs the BlogCatalog γ panel a4. Panel a4 is otherwise never cited.
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Wording Section 6.1.3: DeepWalk "ends with a 3% lead in Micro-F1, and an impressive 5% improvement in Macro-F1"; Table 4 at 10% labelled gives Macro-F1 35.67 against EdgeCluster 31.54, a gap of 4.13 points.
- p. 6 Section 6.1.3
ends with a 3% lead in Micro-F1, and an impressive 5% improvement in Macro-F1
- p. 7 Table 4, Macro-F1, 10% column
35.67
- p. 7 Table 4, Macro-F1, EdgeCluster, 10% column
31.54
- p. 6 6.1.3 YouTube
an impressive
Only the authors can say what is right here.
Judge's note: Checked Table 4 on the page 7 image. The other three gaps quoted in the paragraph match the table as point differences against EdgeCluster (14.05, 9.74, 2.98, printed as 14%, 10%, 3%). The final Macro-F1 gap is 4.13, which rounds to 4. Other readings do not give 5 either: 6.78 against wvRN, about 13% as a relative gain. The gap is close to 5 at 3% and 4% labelled (4.91, 4.73), but the sentence is about where DeepWalk ends. A one-point discrepancy in the prose; the table is presumably right.
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Wording Section 6.1.1: "when trained with only 20% of the nodes labeled, DeepWalk performs better than these approaches when they are given 90% of the data" holds in Table 2 for Micro-F1 only; on Macro-F1 DeepWalk at 20% (23.80) is below EdgeCluster (24.92) and Modularity (24.97) at 90%.
- p. 6 Section 6.1.1
when trained with only 20% of the nodes labeled, DeepWalk performs better than these approaches when they are given 90% of the data
- p. 7 Table 2, Macro-F1, DeepWalk 20%
23.80
- p. 7 Table 2, Macro-F1, Modularity 90%
24.97
- p. 7 Table 2, Macro-F1, EdgeCluster 90%
24.92
Judge's note: Read Table 2 on the page 7 image. Micro-F1: DeepWalk 20% = 38.20 against EdgeCluster 36.29, Modularity 38.18, wvRN 34.28 at 90% (holds, by 0.02 over Modularity). Macro-F1: DeepWalk 20% = 23.80 against EdgeCluster 24.92, Modularity 24.97, wvRN 19.57 at 90% (fails for two of the three). The sentence on page 6 names no metric, and the next sentence speaks of both Macro-F1 and Micro-F1; nothing in the text restricts the claim to Micro-F1. An overstatement rather than a wrong number.
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Wording Section 6.1.3: "When 1% of the labeled nodes are used for test, the Micro-F1 improves by 14%" describes the 1% training ratio; the 1% of nodes are used for training, not for test.
- p. 6 Section 6.1.3
When 1% of the la-
Judge's note: Page 6 image. Section 6.1 defines T_R as the portion of labeled nodes used as training data, "The rest of the nodes are used as test". Table 4 (page 7) at the 1% column gives DeepWalk 37.95 against EdgeCluster 23.90 on Micro-F1 (difference 14.05) and 29.22 against 19.48 on Macro-F1 (difference 9.74), which match the "14%" and "10%" in the sentence, so the sentence is about T_R = 1% training. "used for test" is a slip for "used for training".
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20 minor (typos and the like; most checked by the judge only)
Reference or label Section 4.1: "it is not necessary for the algorithm to work as we will show in 4.2.2"; Section 4.2.2 (Hierarchical Softmax) does not show this, and working without prior knowledge of V and vertex frequencies is discussed in Section 4.4.1 (Streaming).
- p. 4 Section 4.1
it is not necessary for the algorithm to work as we will show in 4.2.2
- p. 5 Section 4.4.1 Streaming
If the cardinality of V is known (or can be bounded), we can build the Hierarchical Softmax tree for that maximum value.
- p. 4 Section 4.1 Overview
it is not necessary for the algorithm to work as we will show in 4.2.2.
Only the authors can say what is right here.
Judge's note: Read Section 4.2.2 on the page 4 image: it describes the binary tree over V and says Huffman coding by frequency can speed up training. That implies frequencies are optional but does not address an unknown V. Section 4.4.1 on page 5 covers building the tree for a bounded |V| and assigning vertices as they are first seen. The pointer is at best partial; the authors may have meant 4.4.1.
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Wording Abstract: "F1 scores up to 10% higher than competing methods when labeled data is sparse" and Introduction: "getting improvements 5%-10% of Micro F1, on the sparsest problems we consider", but Section 6.1.3 reports "the Micro-F1 improves by 14%" on YouTube at 1% labelled nodes (Table 4: 37.95 against EdgeCluster 23.90).
- p. 1 Abstract
F1 scores up to 10% higher than competing methods when labeled data is sparse
- p. 2 Section 1, contributions
getting improvements 5%-10% of Micro F1, on the sparsest problems we consider
- p. 6 Section 6.1.3
the Micro-F1 improves by 14%
- p. 6 Section 6.1.3 YouTube
When 1% of the labeled nodes are used for test, the Micro-F1 improves by 14%
Only the authors can say what is right here.
Judge's note: This cluster is judged on the 10% versus 14% point only; the "used for test" wording that some reviewers also raised here is judged in C013. Checked pages 1, 2, 6 and Table 4 on page 7. The 14% in the text matches Table 4 against EdgeCluster (14.05 points). Against the best baseline in that column (wvRN, 26.79) the gap is 11.16, still above 10. The Macro-F1 gap is 9.74, but the introduction names Micro F1. The abstract and introduction do not say which baseline they compare against, and they understate the gain, so this is a consistency question for the authors, not a wrong result.
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Wording Section 6.1.2: "when only 3% of the graph is labeled beats all other methods even when they have been given 10% of the data. In other words, DeepWalk can outperform the baselines with 60% less training data." 3% against 10% is 70% less; the abstract and introduction repeat 60%.
- p. 6 Section 6.1.2
only 3% of the graph is labeled beats all other methods even when they have been given 10% of the data. In other words, DeepWalk can outperform the baselines with 60% less training data.
- p. 1 Abstract
outperform all baseline methods while using 60% less training data
- p. 2 Section 1, contributions
even when given 60% less training data
- p. 6 Section 6.1.2 Flickr
only 3% of the graph is labeled beats all other methods even when they have been given 10% of the data. In other words, DeepWalk can outperform the baselines with 60% less training data
Only the authors can say what is right here.
Judge's note: Checked page 6 and Table 3 on page 7. DeepWalk Micro-F1 at 3% is 35.9, above the best baseline at 10% (SpectralClustering, 35.41); at 2% it is 34.6, below. So the 3% versus 10% comparison holds and is a 70% reduction. "60% less" would be 4% versus 10%, which Table 3 also supports (36.7 > 35.41), so the 60% claim is true as a conservative statement but does not restate the sentence it follows with "In other words". Only the authors can say which figure was meant.
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Wording Section 3.3: "we introduce a mapping function Φ: v ∈ V ↦ R^{|V|×d}" gives a single vertex a |V|×d image; Section 4.2.1 has "representation vector Φ(v_j) ∈ R^d".
- p. 3 Section 3.3
introduce a mapping function Φ: v ∈ V ↦ R|V |×d
- p. 4 Section 4.2.1
vector Φ(vj) ∈ Rd
- p. 3 3.3
introduce a mapping function
- p. 4 4.2.1
representation vector
Judge's note: Read on the page 3 image: the mapping is typeset with codomain R^{|V|×d} for an element v ∈ V. The next sentence says Φ is represented by a |V| × d matrix of free parameters, which is the whole parameter matrix, and page 4 writes Φ(v_j) ∈ R^d. The codomain for one vertex should be R^d. Loose notation; the meaning is recoverable.
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Wording Section 3.1: "W^{k+1}_{v_i} is a vertex chosen at random from the neighbors of vertex v_k"; v_k is not defined, and the previous vertex of the walk is W^k_{v_i}.
- p. 3 Section 3.1
is a vertex chosen at random from the neigh-
Judge's note: Read on the page 3 image. The walk's variables are written W^1_{v_i}, ..., W^k_{v_i}, and then the next step is drawn from the neighbours of "vertex v_k", a symbol not introduced. It is presumably shorthand for the vertex visited at step k; the intent is clear, the notation is loose.
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Typo "We outline ours experiments in Section 5" should read "our experiments".
- p. 2 Section 1, last paragraph
We outline ours experiments in Section
- p. 2 Introduction, last paragraph
We outline ours experiments in Section 5
Judge's note: Read on the page 2 image, last paragraph of Section 1. The text is as quoted; a plain grammatical slip.
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Typo Section 3.3 display: "W_1^n = (w_0, w_1, ···, w_n)"; the sequence is labelled from 1 to n but listed from w_0.
- p. 3 Section 3.3, first display
W n 1 = (w0, w1, · · · , wn)
- p. 3 Section 3.3
= (w0, w1, · · · , wn)
Judge's note: Read on the page 3 image: the subscript is 1 and the first listed element is w_0, and the following line uses Pr(w_n | w_0, w_1, ..., w_{n-1}). An index inconsistency with no effect on meaning.
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Typo Figure 2 caption: "The power-law distribution of vertices appearing in short random walks (2a) follows a power-law" is redundant; "The distribution of vertices ... follows a power-law" is meant.
- p. 3 Figure 2 caption
The power-law distribution of vertices appearing in short random walks (2a) follows a power-law
Judge's note: Read on the page 3 image; the caption is as quoted. Wording only.
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Typo Section 3.3: "The goal of language modeling is estimate the likelihood" (missing "to") and "These walks can be thought of short sentences and phrases" (missing "as").
- p. 3 Section 3.3, first sentence
The goal of language modeling is estimate the likelihood
- p. 3 Section 3.3, fourth paragraph
These walks can be thought of short sentences and phrases
Judge's note: Both sentences read on the page 3 image, right column, as quoted. Two missing words.
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Typo Algorithm 1, line 3: "for i = 0 to γ do" reads as γ+1 passes, while the input list says "walks per vertex γ" and Section 4.2 says "the number of times, γ, which we should start random walks at each vertex".
- p. 4 Algorithm 1, line 3
for i = 0 to γ do
- p. 4 Section 4.2
The outer loop specifies the number of times, γ, which we should start random walks at each vertex.
Judge's note: Read on the page 4 image. Taken inclusively the loop runs γ+1 times; a half-open reading (0 to γ-1) would give γ. Pseudocode off-by-one, either reading possible.
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Typo Section 5.2, EdgeCluster bullet: "Its has been shown to perform comparably to the Modularity method" should read "It has been shown".
- p. 6 Section 5.2, EdgeCluster bullet
Its has been shown to perform comparably
- p. 6 Section 5.2, EdgeCluster bullet
Its has
Judge's note: Visible on the page 6 image: "Its has been shown". Compare the wvRN bullet below, which prints "It has shown". Plain typo.
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Typo Table 1 gives the BlogCatalog labels as "Interests" and the Flickr labels as "Groups", while Section 5.1 describes BlogCatalog labels as "the topic categories provided by the authors" and Flickr labels as "the interest groups of the users".
- p. 6 Table 1, Labels row
Interests
- p. 6 5.1 Datasets, BlogCatalog and Flickr bullets
The labels represent the topic categories provided by the authors
Judge's note: Both read on the page 6 image. The wording differs between table and text ("Interests" against "topic categories"; "interest" appears in the text for Flickr, not BlogCatalog), but the terms are loose synonyms and neither is evidently wrong. A minor consistency point only.
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Typo Section 6.2.1: "The first is that there is most of the benefit is accomplished by starting γ = 30 walks per node in both graphs" has a stray "there is"; it should read "The first is that most of the benefit is accomplished".
- p. 8 Section 6.2.1, third paragraph
The first is that there is most of the benefit is accomplished by starting γ = 30 walks per node
- p. 8 6.2.1
starting γ = 30 walks per node
- p. 8 6.2.2
quickly slows (γ > 10)
- p. 8 Section 6.2.1
is that there is most of the
Judge's note: Read on the page 8 image. The garbled sentence is a plain copy-edit slip. The second point raised (6.2.1 puts most of the benefit at γ = 30, while 6.2.2 says the effect "quickly slows (γ > 10)") is not confirmed as a defect: the two statements are compatible (gains slow after 10 and are mostly complete by 30), and the plotted γ values are 1, 3, 10, 30, 50, 90.
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Typo Section 6.2: "how changes to the parameterization of DeepWalk effect its performance on classification tasks" should read "affect its performance".
- p. 8 Section 6.2, first sentence
of DeepWalk effect its performance on classification tasks
- p. 8 Section 6.2, first sentence
two multi-label classifications tasks
- p. 8 Section 6.2
effect its performance on classification tasks
Judge's note: Read on the page 8 image; the verb is printed "effect". The same sentence's "classifications tasks" is judged separately as C025.
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Typo Section 6.2: "two multi-label classifications tasks" should read "two multi-label classification tasks".
- p. 8 Section 6.2
two multi-label classifications tasks
Judge's note: Read on the page 8 image: "we conducted experiments on two multi-label classifications tasks (Flickr, and BlogCatalog)". A distinct slip from the "effect"/"affect" one in C024, though in the same sentence.
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Typo Section 6.2.1: "Figures 5a1 and 5a3 examine the effects of varying the dimensionality and training rate" uses "training rate" for the quantity defined elsewhere as the "training ratio (T_R)".
- p. 8 Section 6.2.1
dimensionality and training rate.
Judge's note: Page 8 image for the sentence; pages 6 (Sections 6.1.1-6.1.3) use "training ratio (T_R)" throughout. The meaning is clear from the context and the figure legends ("Training" 0.01-0.9), so this is a terminology inconsistency only.
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Typo References [14] and [18] print an issue number with no volume: "Transactions on, (6):721–741, 1984." and "IEEE Transactions on, (3):267–287, 1983."
- p. 9 Reference [14]
Transactions on, (6):721–741, 1984.
- p. 10 Reference [18]
(3):267–287, 1983.
Judge's note: Read on the page 9 and page 10 images. Other journal entries in the list give volume and issue, e.g. [7] "20(1):30–42" and [11] "19(3):355–369". The omission is visible in the PDF itself; the missing volume numbers are not in the files and are not asserted here.
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Typo Reference [3] lists three authors, "Y. Bengio, R. Ducharme, and P. Vincent. A neural probabilistic language model. Journal of Machine Learning Research, 3:1137–1155, 2003"; the JMLR article is said to have a fourth author (C. Jauvin).
- p. 9 Reference [3]
Y. Bengio, R. Ducharme, and P. Vincent. A neural probabilistic language model.
Only the authors can say what is right here.
Judge's note: Rests on outside knowledge: that the 2003 JMLR paper "A neural probabilistic language model" has four authors (Bengio, Ducharme, Vincent, Jauvin). The page 9 image shows the entry as quoted, with three authors and the JMLR volume and pages. The author list of the cited work cannot be checked from the files, so this is a query for the authors.
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Typo Reference [37]: "P. Sen, G. Namata, M. Bilgic, L. Getoor, B. Galligher, and T. Eliassi-Rad" spells the surname "Galligher"; references [12], [13] and [16] spell the same co-author of Eliassi-Rad "Gallagher".
- p. 10 Reference [37]
P. Sen, G. Namata, M. Bilgic, L. Getoor, B. Galligher,
- p. 9 Reference [12]
B. Gallagher and T. Eliassi-Rad
- p. 10 Reference [37]
B. Galligher
- p. 10
B. Galligher, and T. Eliassi-Rad.
Judge's note: Page 10 image shows "B. Galligher" in [37] and "B. Gallagher" in [16]; page 9 image shows "B. Gallagher" in [12] and [13], each time alongside T. Eliassi-Rad. The inconsistency is internal to the reference list, so the fix does not depend on outside knowledge.
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Typo Reference [44] prints "An information flow modelfor conflict and fission in small groups1.": the space in "model for" is missing and a stray "1" follows "groups".
- p. 10 Reference [44]
An information flow modelfor conflict and fission in small groups1.
- p. 10 Reference [44]
An information flow modelfor conflict
Judge's note: Viewed the crop of PDF page 10. Both "modelfor" and "groups1" are printed in the rendered page, so they are not extraction artefacts. The "1" is set on the baseline as part of the title; that it derives from a footnote mark in the original title is a plausible guess but not checkable here. Cosmetic.
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